When two wires are twisted inside the cable, they are called a twisted pair. By twisting the wires, the electromagnetic interference caused by the electrical current is greatly reduced. Most LAN cabling uses two twisted pairs – one for transmitting and one for receiving.
Category Archives: Data Communications Systems
What is a ransomware attack?
Ransom + Software = Ransomware
Ransomware will either:
- lock the computer to prevent the user from normal usage or
- encrypt the data that it stored on the victim’s hard disk to prevent access.
Ransomware is a type of malware that forces its victim to pay the ransom through certain online payment methods so as to grand access to their system or to decrypt their data.
Payment is often required in the form of cryptocurrency such as Bitcoin.
In order to minimize the impact of ransomware maintain an offline backup of end-user data.
Example of Ransomware: Locky, CryptoLocker, Cerber, Simplelocker.
How to convert dBW to dBm
Example:
Convert 7,78 dBW to dBm.
The formula to convert dBW to dBm is P[dBm] = P[dBW] + 30
Therefore P[dBm]=7,78+30=37,78
Prefix Code
Prefix code is defined as a code in which no codeword is a prefix of a any other codeword.
Example 1:
Assume the Huffman code:
A=11111, B=11110, C=1110, D=1101, E=1100, F=10, G=01, H=00
We have codeword 00 and no other codeword starts with 00. The five-bit codewords 11111 and 11110 start with 1111, which is not a codeword.
Example 2:
A=0, B=10, C=110, D=111
We have codeword 0 and no other codeword starts with 0. No codeword starts with 10. Therefore is a prefix code.
Variable-length code
In a variable-length code codewords have different lengths.
Time-Division Duplexing (TDD)
Time-Division Duplexing (TDD) is a transmission method that uses one channel for transmitting and receiving, separating them by different time slots. No guard band is used. Since the transmitter and the receiver do not operate at the same time, there is no possibility of interference between the two.
TDD is like a narrow bridge in a two-way road. Vehicles moving in one lane must wait the vehicles coming from the opposite direction to cross the bridge.
Time-Division Duplexing (TDD) is also known as Half Duplex. In half duplex transmission data can travel in either direction but not simultaneously.
Example of a Half Duplex system is the walkie-talkie.
LTE supports both FDD and TDD, [1].
LTE stands for Long Term Evolution.
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
TDMA users share a common frequency channel but use the channel for only a very short time. They are given a time slot and only allowed to transmit during that time slot. When all available time slots in a given frequency are used, the next user must be assigned a time slot on another frequency. These time slices are so small that the human ear does not perceive the time slicing. Examples of TDMA-based systems are the following:
- Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) in Europe
- TDMA IS-136 in US
In TDMA one user can transmit and receive data only during the predetermined time interval.
RSA SecurID
RSA SecurID uses two-factor authentication to determine we are who we say we are. RSA SecurID combines
- something we know (our PIN) with
- something we have (our RSA SecurID token that generates the tokencode)
Figure: RSA SecurID token
Multifactor authentication
Multifactor authentication means submitting at least two out of three forms of identification.
- First factor: something you know (e.g. password, PIN)
- Second factor: something you have (e.g. Credit/Debit card, Mobile phone, Software/Hardware token )
- Third factor: something you are (e.g. signature, fingerprint)
Two-factor authentication (ATM example)
Every time we use our ATM card, we use two-factor authenctication. Two-factor authentication combines something we have (our ATM card) with something we know (our PIN).